arctic resources conflict

Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Marine Policy 36 (1): 13241. A changing Arctic therefore represents a region of new opportunities and shifting priorities for stakeholder nations who increasingly deploy military resources to obtain or defend Arctic interests, both via direct deterrence and the broader projection of regional power. The meeting included institutional and government representatives, as well as scientists, political and policy leaders, experts, activists, and indigenous people. Baker M (2020) Are We Getting Invaded?: U.S. As the Arctic is particularly prone to environmental changes, states will continue to navigate emerging issues with marine resource management and distribution. Receding polar ice, as a result of climate change, has created even more opportunities in this respect. https://www.fao.org/3/CA0190EN/ca0190en.pdf. Svalbards Doomsday Vault: Saving Seeds for Civilization, Is The Bear Going White? Pacific Historical Review(32): 347-67. In 1994, an agreement on a temporary moratorium on pollock was reached by the various national stakeholders, including Japan, China, Poland, and South Korea, with stringent enforcement measures.20)Dunlap W V (1994) A Pollock-Fishing Agreement for the Central Bering Sea. In 2017, the United States invested US$40 million in improving the Thule Air Base due to Russias escalation of military presence in the region. Russia was the first to enter a territory claim for the ridge, however both Denmark and Canada have followed with their own claims. Canada was the first Arctic state to claim vast land areas in the region in 1935, followed shortly after by the Soviet Union in 1937. Access to the regions resources offers enormous economic opportunities for Arctic states. ICES, https://nasco.int/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/CNL_17_8_ACOM_Advice.pdf. Snow crab was first recorded in the eastern Barents Sea in 1996. AEPS is a multilateral, non-binding agreement on environmental protection in the Arctic circle. Still, we should look at past and current examples of marine resource disputes, in order to say something about how the way forward might evolve. At the same time, stocks are changing their migratory patterns because of changes in the geophysical marine environment.28)Brander K (2010) Impacts of Climate Change on Fisheries. This growing militarization and competition in the Arctic has raised concerns surrounding the potential for conflict in the region, which may be particularly devastating in fragile polar environments. Latest posts by The Organization for World Peace, 12.95 million square kilometers (December 2021), the Saami in Finland, Sweden, Norway and Russia, Nenets, Khanty, Evenk and Chukchi in Russia, Aleut, Yupik and Inuit (Iupiat) in Alaska, Inuit (Inuvialuit) in Canada and Inuit (Kalaallit) in Greenland, expected to worsen as Arctic ice caps continue to melt. There are six permanent participants representing the multiple Arctic indigenous populations, including the Aleut International Association, the Arctic Athabaskan Council, the Gwichin Council International, the Inuit Circumpolar Council, the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North Thirteen, and the Saami Council. The report states that Norways primary foreign policy focus will be the Arctic in the upcoming years. This development will prompt the coastal states to discuss changes to their management regimes and quota distribution. Get a weekly rundown of the Arctics top stories by subscribingto the Institutes newsletter:The Arctic This Week. Privacy Policy. Therefore, the broader legal ramifications of this dispute go beyond the right to catch snow crab on the continental shelf around Svalbard, with potential applications to sedentary resources such as oil and gas and seabed minerals. Death and destruction has followed in Wagner's wake everywhere it has operated, and the United States will continue to take actions to hold it accountable. How a Dispute over Snow Crab Became a Diplomatic Headache between Norway and the EU. Conflict is a natural part of society. Most legal matters concerning the region are determined by The Arctic Council: an intergovernmental organization that encourages cooperation in the region. A 2019 US Department of Defense report speculated that China might be exploring the logistical possibilities of establishing a military presence in the region. 2. The lack of international legal protections in the region creates a need for cooperation and diplomacy that could prevent escalating tensions. It is no secret that humanity is experiencing a widespread reduction in the total biomass of marine resources, closely linked to human exploitative activities.27)FAO (2018) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Another relevant case just north of Iceland in the Barents Sea concerns snow crab and the Svalbard continental shelf. Journalism and scholarship alike questionifmilitary conflict might occur,howpeace can be maintained, andwhatwar would look like in the Arctic. Examining the potential for conflict as major states look towards the newly accessible Arctic region with it's abundant resources Consequently, the Arctic Council works to resolve disputes by publishing agreements and focusing on sustainability and environmental protection of the Arctic. 22 August 2022: Chinese shipping company shuns Russian Arctic waters. The conflict in the Arctic Circle mirrors many of the dynamics present in the South China Sea conflict, in which a competition over access to strategic positions and trade routes has expanded into a more overt conflict between great powers who see each others actions as actively hostile. Many non-governmental organizations specifically focus on the Arctic. Russias Red Arctic objective has propelled them to maintain its military presence through its numerous airbases and border outposts. Although the Arctic Circle is characterized by its geographical position at the top of the planet, right now, it appears to be the center of the world.Radar at Thule Air Base, Greenland on October 7, 2010. Boats Faced Russian Aggression Near Alaska. The interests that states hold in marine living resourcesthe Icelandic and Norwegian interests in mackerel fisheries, Russian fisheries interests in the waters around Svalbard, the interests of the EU and EU member states in snow crab fisheries, and conflicting economic and sustainability interests in the North Pacificshould not be underestimated. However, according to international law, the North Pole and the Arctic Ocean cannot be claimed by any sole state. Prior to this ratification both countries were unable to explore oil and gas development in the area, which is expected to contain significant reserves. Outside of great power conflict, the rush for resources, especially fossil fuels such as natural gas, causes serious environmental impacts. This would represent a new territorial and military alliance within the Arctic Circle. A chunk of ice sized 44 square miles was found to have broken off of the Arctics largest remaining ice shelf in northeast Greenland. 20 May 2021: Zombie fires engulfing the arctic circle. The Arctic Institutes research and capacity building projects help make the Arctic a more secure, just, and sustainable place. The area holds a vast amount of natural resources that have become available for exploitation with climate-change-induced melting of the Arctic ice caps. First, an increasing number of fisheries American, Icelandic, Norwegian and Russian are expected to venture further northwards in the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and the Barents Sea. As such, multiples Arctic states have disputed over rights to the Arctic territories to access these resources. Global warming has resulted in the melting of the Arctics ice caps to significant degrees that continue to increase annually. Stabeno P J, Thoman R L, and Wood K (2019) Recent Warming in the Bering Sea and Its Impact on the Ecosystem. Second, Arctic and subarctic territories represent strategic points for transportation, information and intelligence gathering, military operations, and a number of other activities associated with state economic and defense priorities. However, the Arctic states have a history of developing co-management mechanisms to solve problems with overfishing in northern waters. The presence of armies heightens the already contentious dynamic in the region by allowing for the possibility of miscalculation. The eight Arctic countries consist of the United States, Canada, Russia, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. Did harm come out of the researchers' good intentions? Possible implications of Russia within the Arctic include creation of a new trading route, and underground storage of nuclear weapons. A Canadian Ambassador in Washington, DC, Lester Pearson, published Canada Looks down North, in which he attempted to claim territorial rights not only to the islands North of Canada but also the Sea North of Canada between the meridians of Canadas east and west boundaries, which extends up to the Northern Pole. Denmark, the Russian Federation and Canada have all asserted that the Lomonosov Ridge is an extension of their respective continental ridges. During the past 30 years the calcium carbonate market's growth rate for high-grade limestone has ranged from 5 to 15% per year. As more of the Arctics ocean is revealed from beneath these ice caps, it has opened resource extraction opportunities in the region. conflict within the Arctic. In addition, this guidance document encourages a phased approach to service . Both the EU and Norway define the snow crab as belonging to the continental shelf regime. Struggle for Arctic resources could devolve into conflict Currently, there is no major tension between the Arctic states. Despite common usage, the term does not entail outright hostility or war. Ecology and Society 16 (2): 13. The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/12/us/russia-military-alaska-arctic-fishing.html. It would be simple to conclude that the conflict potential between states over how best to manage marine living resources in the Arctic is likely to rise as a consequence of these factors. Boundaries and resources There are no politically significant conflicts about maritime or territorial boundaries in the Arctic anymore. The former United States Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, said the Northern Passage could become the 21st century Suez and Panama Canals and potentially reduce sea travel from Asia and the West by 20 days. This could have drastic consequences for temperatures and weather patterns across the globe. The implications of the Thule Air Base for conflicts outside of the Arctic can not be understated as it could detect any incoming missile from Russia, North Korea, or China. The Arctic Institute, document.write(new Date().getFullYear());. The combination of a finite, yet growing amount of claimable territory as well as the perception of a zero-sum game have set these nations on a collision course for potential conflict. The real possibility that nations will become economically and militarily invested in the region means that media members and the general public ought to pay more attention to its geopolitics. Similarly, the non-binding nature of Arctic Council resolutions and the lack of enforcement powers limit the bodys ability to regulate the conflict at a time when peaceful negotiation and cooperation might be needed the most. Panelists continue to discuss how Arctic cooperation and addressing of the issue of climate change can go forward without Russias participation. Speaker of the Finnish Parliament, Matti VanHanen, said that geographical neighbors Finland, Sweden, and Norway should consider combining their air defense control jointly in areas north of the Arctic Circle in coming years. Arctic issues, the Arctic is increasingly viewed as an arena for geopolitical competition among https://www.fao.org/3/CA0190EN/ca0190en.pdf. The icebreakers are representative of the larger cat-and-mouse game that is emerging by the three nations, in which they attempt to pre-empt the other two countries and respond in kind to an opposing nations expansion in the region. Sarewitz D (2004) How Science Makes Environmental Controversies Worse. More than 280 female scientists and conservation experts urged for stronger protections of the Arctic Peninsula region in October of 2020. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar; Raspotnik A and sthagen A (2020) How Much Is the Fish? The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum made up of the eight nations that border the arctic, namely: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. Resources [ edit] Oil and gas [ edit] The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that undiscovered oil and gas reserves in the Arctic amount to 22% of the world's total, about 412 billion barrels of oil. 18 February 2021: Scientists say Texas snowstorms are due to the rapid heating of the Arctic. Davor Vidas. As a result of Russias ongoing invasion of Ukraine, Russian shipping routes in the Arctic have seen increasingly less traffic. Similarly, in the Bering Sea, as the pollock stock collapsed in the early 1990s after a decade of overfishing in the so-called Donut Hole, a regime came into existence to manage the stock.19)Bailey K M (2011) An Empty Donut Hole: The Great Collapse of a North American Fishery. As such, even nations that are far away from the Arctic are beginning to involve themselves in its affairs, such as China, whose interests lie in the resources that the Arctic holds rather than the land itself. the increased temperature and understanding of physics have helped scientist more accurately predict when the ice will melt. From virtually no catches prior to the stocks arrival in 2006, Icelandic fishermen caught more than 100,000 tonnes in 20082009,7)ICES (2017) ICES Advice on Fishing Opportunities, Catch, and Effort -Northeast Atlantic. However, due to global warming, the Northern Passage has become navigational. At a first glance, seeds may not look like much, but within them lies the foundation of our future food and nutrition security, and the, The effects of climate change are opening up new spaces for geopolitical and geoeconomic competition. The Arctic Circle is one of two polar circles found on Earth, making up the most northerly latitude in the world. Indigenous groups are highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change in the Arctic as they significantly rely on the environment and ecosystem for their basic needs. As a result of Russias continued attack on Ukraine, the nation has been suspended from almost all Arctic cooperation, including the Arctic Council, which is the cornerstone organization of Arctic states. The convention defines the rights to use the Worlds oceans. The 2011 Kingdom of Denmark: Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020 announced Denmarks interest in the Arctic and intentions for the 9 year time span. Alexander Island ownership has been disputed by Britain, Chile, and Argentina. Resource Conflict; These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. In centuries prior, the Northern Passage was blocked by ice caps, making travel through the route impossible for commercial purposes. This practical guidance is a resource for mental health and psychosocial practitioners seeking to support women and children exiting violent extremist conflict. 6 Jul 2011. [1] A Brookings Institution summary reported: The Arctic remained a pivotal military theater throughout the Cold War. The Bering Sea and Bering Strait have long been an area of contention surrounding the harvesting and conservation of marine living resources. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. In the Arctic, retreating sea ice and climate change are altering the distribution of marine living resources, while demand for these resources has risen. Polasky S et al. In june and july 2019, the zombie fires emitted 244 megatons of carbon dioxide. These dimensions could be evidenced here by European politicians statements over the snow crab dispute; by the U.S. Coast Guards lack of forewarning to fishing vessels of planned Russian military operations in U.S. waters; and by the arguments of Norwegian and Icelandic fisheries organisations when disagreeing on mackerel quotas. These ice caps significantly impact global climate as they reflect sunlight into space, dispelling solar heat. 24 May 2022: Russia suspended from the Arctic Council. Vocabulary The Arctic is the northernmost region of Earth. Parts of the Arctic could be dominated by rain during certain seasons rather than snow earlier than expected, as soon as 2060 or 2070. In 2007, Russia claimed the Lomonosov Ridge, a large seabed that is estimated to have high levels of natural resources. The George VI Ice Shelf separates Palmer Island From Alexander Island. What paths might Arctic militarization take in the post-arms control context, after the events of 9/11 revealed American vulnerabilities to modern large-scale threats? Without urgent action to cut greenhouse gas emissions, the world will continue to feel the effects of a warming Arctic: rising sea levels, changes in climate and precipitation patterns, increasing severe weather events, and loss of fish stocks, birds and marine mammals. In their article, Knowledge is Power: Greenland, Great Powers, and Lessons from the Second World War, Rogers and Gjerstad analyze the strategic role that Greenland played in providing a different kind of resource to forces in World War II: information, which was used in the planning of military operations on the European continent.2)Arctic and subarctic ports, transportation infrastructure, and natural resources were also critical to the war effort in the Soviet Union. Here are five key vessels involved in the search effort, either on the scene or on the way, according to the US and Canadian coast guards: CCGS John Cabot: The 207-foot Canadian Coast Guard . the depth of institutionalisation between the states in question;25)Young O R (1989) International Cooperation: Building Regimes for Natural Resources and the Environment. Was there an inherent conflict between the goals of research and Genie's need to receive treatment and care? Much recent discussion has focused on the contemporary militarization of Arctic and subarctic regions. The actions and rhetoric of the United States, China, and Russia have and will continue to influence each other in the region. This was heralded as a proactive rather than reactive approach, showcasing the Arctic states commitment in dealing with climate change.22)Sumaila U R (2015) Temporary Ban on Fishing Reflects How Fragile Arctic Ecosystem Is. Color pictures and information are printed on both sides of the card. The Chinese shipping company COSCO appears to shun Russian Arctic shipping routes, based on the fact that the company has not applied for any sailing permissions with the Russian Northern Sea Route Administration. Diplomatic means to resolve the conflict, such as the Arctic Council, exist, but questions remain about their ability to resolve the conflict and create agreements that are actually adhered to. As discussed in Evans and sthagens article, Fisheries Disputes: The real potential for Arctic conflict, some of the earliest interstate conflicts among Arctic stakeholders involved the delineation and management of natural resources such as seal and fish stocks. As noted in the US Army strategy, the contemporary militarization of the Arctic region is driven by a number of factors. The Arctic Institute is a 501(c)3 tax exempt nonprofit organisation with a network of researchers across the world. The competition over land claims is driven in part by nations' desire for the regions natural resources, specifically natural gas, which provides almost a quarter of all global energy usage. Such organizations include The Arctic Institute, ArcticNet, World Wildlife Fund Arctic Programme, Oceans North, and The Polar Connection. 2 August 2007: Russia Claims the North Pole by Planting Russian Flag on Arctic Seabed. Photo: U.S. Pacific Fleet. All rights reserved. As a consequence of the rapidly disappearing polar ice caps, there has been an increase in unclaimed ocean and land territory, beyond any nations control, that countries are attempting to gain jurisdiction over for purposes, such as resource extraction and trade routes. The goal of the organization is to increase cooperation between Arctic states regarding Arctic governance and environmental protection. Fiskeribladet, 6 December, https://fiskeribladet.no/nyheter/?artikkel=39119. 16 December 2014: Denmark Submits Territorial Claim over the Lomonosov Ridge. The need is clear: Russia continues to pursue aggressive Arctic military advancements, accelerating its head start this has come after the kremlin has increased defense within the arctic area. The need to preserve these geopolitical and economic interests have motivated nations to bring a military presence to the region. The act confirmed that the Northern Passage lays within Canadian territory. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/21/iceland-accused-of-putting-mackerel-stocks-at-risk-by-increasing-its-catch. These results are surprising, as Greenlanders have been hesitant about potential extraction and mining operations on their land in the past. The claim contradicts both Denmark and Russias claim on the same territory, which is estimated to have high levels of natural resources in its seabed. 18 August 2022: Greenlands Indigenous population favors extracting and exporting resources from melting ice sheet. As the arctic ice melts at an exponential rate, scientists have uncovered one of the reasons for this. Control over Arctic territory has given nations the ability to settle it, extract resources, and establish military outposts, making legal rights and claims over such territory incredibly valuable. Some 90 warships and military aircraft were part of the Russian effort to secure economic development in the North Pacific, a region that is becoming increasingly lucrative as melting sea ice makes way for resource extraction and trade routes.5)Baker M (2020) Are We Getting Invaded?: U.S. The Arctic Council is the only intergovernmental organization in the Arctic, comprising all eight Arctic states: the United States, Canada, Russia, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. The Arctic Institute is a 501(c)3 tax exempt nonprofit organisation with a network of researchers across the world. He is interested in the Arctic Circle and international diplomacy. Recent temperatures were an average of 12 degrees Fahrenheit above average for all 7.7 million square miles of the Arctic, demonstrating the effects of climate change that are impacting the Arctic at an accelerated rate. One solution that states in the Arctic and beyond have used to alleviate such pressures is regional issue-specific multilateral cooperation. Conversely, a negative ending to the regional conflict could extend beyond the region into a larger war in multiple regions. Beyond economic motivations, nations such as the United States, Russia, and China are competing in the region to project military supremacy and seek more power. However, taking proactive measures or diffusing an ongoing dispute requires both political engagement and concern over the long-term effects of a protracted dispute. Campbell C S (1963) The Bering Sea Settlements of 1892. As the Arctic's treacherous polar ice caps melt away, nations have begun to engage in a modern gold rush over the regions unclaimed territory, natural resources, and strategic position. The Arctichome to more than four million people, extensive natural resources, and unique ecosystemsis undergoing a dramatic transformation. As fisheries stocks move north due to warming ocean temperatures, what are the potentials for new or renewed resource conflict in the Arctic? The territory is highly disputed because rights to the ridge would allow access to the natural resources found in the areas sea bed. Upon the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the Axis Powers sought to gain control of strategic northern areas such as the port city of Murmansk, a critical entry point for wartime aid to the Soviet Union; and the mining town of Petsamo, Svalbards Extractive Economy: Past, Present, Future, Chinese Perspective on the Arctic and its Implication for Nordic Countries, The Arctic Council in Transition: Challenges and Perspectives for the new Norwegian Chairship, Call for 2023-2024 Research Intern (Take Five), Call for Papers for Series on Queering the Arctic, Fisheries Disputes: The real potential for Arctic conflict, Knowledge is Power: Greenland, Great Powers, and Lessons from the Second World War, The Impact of the Post-Arms Control Context and Great Power Competition in the Arctic. And finally, as Arctic interests such as natural resources and transportation routes have become tied to national growth, capability, and strategy, the circumpolar north has emerged as a region of interstate competition. The legal protections for the Arctic and its resources are no longer as effective in preventing competition. Similarly, the U.S. Coast Guard refrained from engaging Russian military in the Bering Sea even as American fishing vessels were threatened citing Russias right to conduct military operations in the EEZ.15)Baker M (2020) Are We Getting Invaded?: U.S. Although the risk of intentional military escalation might be apparent, the possibility of accidental conflict escalation in the region also remains a looming threat. Spijkers J and Boonstra W J (2017) Environmental Change and Social Conflict: The Northeast Atlantic Mackerel Dispute. Norway will host 40,000 soldiers to train in navy and air force reinforcements. as climate change leads to melting of ice, more of the arctic region becomes avaible for territory and exploration. December 2013: Canada Announced Territorial Claim over the Lomonosov Ridge. warm water from the pacific ocean flows into the arctic and is then trapped underneath the ice and continues swirling around for months or yeats. and the (un)willingness by states to forgo access to fisheries seen in conjunction with domestic interests and symbolism.26)Vaquer i Fans J (2003) The Domestic Dimension of EU External Policies: The Case of EU-Morocco 2000-01 Fisheries Negotiations. Today, the Bering Sea is home to one of the worlds largest fisheries3)Blanchet M-A, Primicerio R, Frainer A, Kortsch A, Skern-Mauritzen M, Dolgov A V, Aschan M (2019) The role of marine mammals in the Barents Sea foodweb. FAO (2018) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. As a result, the Arctic holds significant potential to become increasingly contested over in the coming years, with many experts considering it to be the site of the 21st centurys Cold War between the Arctic States. Here we will examine three cases of conflict related to fisheries management impacted by global warming in the Bering Sea, Barents Sea, and the North Atlantic in an effort to tease out lessons, dynamics, and general relevance to the Arctic region. Vaquer i Fans J (2003) The Domestic Dimension of EU External Policies: The Case of EU-Morocco 2000-01 Fisheries Negotiations. Henley J (2019) Iceland Accused of Putting Mackerel Stocks at Risk by Increasing Its Catch. Upon the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the Axis Powers sought to gain control of strategic northern areas such as the port city of Murmansk, a critical entry point for wartime aid to the Soviet Union; and the mining town of Petsamo, see Johansen C (2016) Hitlers Nordic Ally? Early interstate conflict between Arctic nations including Canada and the US and Norway and Sweden further influenced the foundation of modern Arctic relations.

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