who was king before richard iii

[35], In June 1473, Richard persuaded his mother-in-law to leave the sanctuary and come to live under his protection at Middleham. Richard was born on 2 October 1452, at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire, the eleventh of the twelve children of Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the youngest to survive infancy. [93], After having Rivers arrested, Richard and Buckingham moved to Stony Stratford, where Richard informed Edward V of a plot aimed at denying him his role as protector and whose perpetrators had been dealt with. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the research team on 24 August 2012. [30] Richard retained Neville's forfeit estates he had already been granted in the summer of 1471:[31][32] Penrith, Sheriff Hutton and Middleham, where he later established his marital household. [180][181] He founded the College of Arms in 1484,[114][115] he banned restrictions on the printing and sale of books,[182] and he ordered the translation of the written Laws and Statutes from the traditional French into English. [50] Following Warwick's 1470 rebellion, before which he had made peace with Margaret of Anjou and promised the restoration of Henry VI to the English throne, Richard, the Baron Hastings and Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, escaped capture at Doncaster by Warwick's brother, John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu. Richard was none of those things. "[210] The Tudor characterisation culminated in the famous fictional portrayal of him in Shakespeare's play Richard III as a physically deformed, Machiavellian villain, ruthlessly committing numerous murders in order to claw his way to power;[211] Shakespeare's intention perhaps being to use Richard III as a vehicle for creating his own Marlowesque protagonist. In 1484, Richard's only legitimate son Edward predeceased him. [224], Despite this, the image of Richard as a ruthless tyrant remained dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries. [295] The face is described as "warm, young, earnest and rather serious". [95] Within the year 1483, Richard had moved himself to the grandeur of Crosby Hall, London, then in Bishopsgate in the City of London. She had already turned down several suitors because of her preference for the religious life. [13], It is possible that even at this early stage Warwick was considering the king's brothers as strategic matches for his daughters, Isabel and Anne: young aristocrats were often sent to be raised in the households of their intended future partners,[14] as had been the case for the young dukes' father, Richard of York. Henry Tudor then ascended the throne as Henry VII. [note 1] While at Warwick's estate, it is likely that he met both Francis Lovell, who was his firm supporter later in his life, and Warwick's younger daughter, his future wife Anne Neville. [103], Bishop Robert Stillington, the Bishop of Bath and Wells, is said to have informed Richard that Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid because of Edward's earlier union with Eleanor Butler, making Edward V and his siblings illegitimate. Buckingham tried to escape in disguise, but was either turned in by a retainer for the bounty Richard had put on his head, or was discovered in hiding with him. After the Battle of Bosworth, Richard's naked body was then carried back to Leicester tied to a horse, and early sources strongly suggest that it was displayed in the collegiate Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke,[150] prior to being hastily and discreetly buried in the choir of Greyfriars Church in Leicester. [201] On 30 March 1485 Richard felt forced to summon the Lords and London City Councillors to publicly deny the rumours that he had poisoned Queen Anne and that he had planned a marriage to his niece Elizabeth,[202] at the same time ordering the Sheriff of London to imprison anyone spreading such slanders. [280][281][282][283] A British-born woman who emigrated to Canada after the Second World War, Joy Ibsen (neBrown), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line. Although it is debatable whether the English victory was due more to internal Scottish divisions rather than any outstanding military prowess by Richard,[89] it was the last time that the Royal Burgh of Berwick changed hands between the two realms. [303] In August 2013, they filed a court case in order to contest Leicester's claim to re-inter the body within its cathedral, and propose the body be buried in York instead. [129], On 22 August 1485, Richard met the outnumbered forces of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field. The Haute family was related to the Woodvilles through the marriage of Elizabeth Woodville's aunt, Joan Wydeville, to William Haute. The base of the skull also presented another fatal wound in which a bladed weapon had been thrust into it, leaving behind a jagged hole. [257][258][259], On 24 August 2012, the University of Leicester, Leicester City Council and the Richard III Society, announced that they were going to look for the remains of King Richard. View history Richard II (6 January 1367 - c. 14 February 1400 ), also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. [92] Edward V had been sent further south to Stony Stratford. [307], His remains were carried in procession to the cathedral on 22 March 2015, and reburied on 26 March 2015[308] at a religious re-burial service at which both Tim Stevens, the Bishop of Leicester, and Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, officiated. To find out more about the mysterious monarch, Philip Shaw, a historical linguist at University of Leicester's School of English, analyzed the only two known examples of Richard III's own. 1. [324], "Richard III" redirects here. With royal approval and definitely not on his own initiative, he may also have helped kill both Prince Edward of Lancaster and Henry VI. [284][285] Her mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J, which by deduction, should also be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III. John Stow talked to old men who, remembering him, said "that he was of bodily shape comely enough, only of low stature"[206][incomplete short citation] and a German traveller, Nicolas von Poppelau, who spent ten days in Richard's household in May 1484, describes him as "three fingers taller than himselfmuch more lean, with delicate arms and legs and also a great heart. [116][117] The conspiracy was nominally led by Richard's former ally, the Duke of Buckingham, although it had begun as a Woodville-Beaufort conspiracy (being "well underway" by the time of the Duke's involvement). [54] They resided in Bruges with Louis de Gruthuse, who had been the Burgundian Ambassador to Edward's court,[55] but it was not until Louis XI of France declared war on Burgundy that Charles, Duke of Burgundy, assisted their return,[56] providing, along with the Hanseatic merchants, 20,000 pounds, 36 ships and 1,200 men. [9], Richard spent several years during his childhood at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, Yorkshire, under the tutelage of his cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, later known as 'the Kingmaker' because of his role in the Wars of the Roses. The skull and bones of King Richard III found under a car park in . Although merely a child, Richard was directly affected by these upheavals and briefly took refuge in the Low Countries before his brother restored the family fortunes. [235] An intermediate view was provided by Alfred Legge in The Unpopular King (1885). More detail: 1.5 . At first convivial, Richard had Earl Rivers, his nephew Richard Grey and his associate, Thomas Vaughan, arrested. [106] Shortly after, the citizens of London, both nobles and commons, convened and drew up a petition asking Richard to assume the throne. [121] For his part, Buckingham raised a substantial force from his estates in Wales and the Marches. Richard was named Lord Protector of the Realm and at Baron Hastings' urging, Richard assumed his role and left his base in Yorkshire for London. [197] Both emphasise that Richard was devious and flattering, while planning the downfall of both his enemies and supposed friends. [157], According to another tradition, Richard consulted a seer in Leicester before the battle who foretold that "where your spur should strike on the ride into battle, your head shall be broken on the return". [note 3], During the latter part of Edward IV's reign, Richard demonstrated his loyalty to the king,[49] in contrast to their brother George who had allied himself with the Earl of Warwick when the latter rebelled towards the end of the 1460s. [2] His childhood coincided with the beginning of what has traditionally been labelled the 'Wars of the Roses', a period of political instability and periodic open civil war in England during the second half of the fifteenth century,[3] between the Yorkists, who supported Richard's father (a potential claimant to the throne of King Henry VI from birth),[4] and opposed the regime of Henry VI and his wife, Margaret of Anjou,[5] and the Lancastrians, who were loyal to the crown. There is no need to suppose that this was a love match, for he insisted on her share of her parents immense inheritances in a bitter dispute with his brother George, husband of the elder daughter. [124][125] Buckingham's army was troubled by the same storm and deserted when Richard's forces came against them. [241] Neither of the two plays places any emphasis on Richard's physical appearance, though the True Tragedy briefly mentions that he is "A man ill shaped, crooked backed, lame armed" and "valiantly minded, but tyrannous in authority". Richard was born in Northamptonshire, England on October 2, 1452.. Neither the birth dates nor the names of the mothers of either of the children is known. Churchill implies he improved the law of trusts. Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his will. The 18th-century philosopher and historian David Hume described him as a man who used dissimulation to conceal "his fierce and savage nature" and who had "abandoned all principles of honour and humanity". On 1 March 1474, he granted Alice Burgh 20 pounds a year for life "for certain special causes and considerations". The succession of Edward IV made Richard a royal prince. The castle held until 24 August 1482, when Richard recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed from the Kingdom of Scotland. [177], Richard's Council of the North, described as his "one major institutional innovation", derived from his ducal council following his own viceregal appointment by Edward IV; when Richard himself became king, he maintained the same conciliar structure in his absence. of their marriage being declared null and void by the Church) and then legally remarried to each other, and also protected Richard's rights while waiting for such a valid second marriage with Anne. [18][note 2], Richard and Edward were forced to flee to Burgundy in October 1470 after Warwick defected to the side of the former Lancastrian queen Margaret of Anjou. [167] This has led to a suggestion by the historian A. L. Rowse that Richard "had no interest in sex". [123], Some of Henry Tudor's ships ran into a storm and were forced to return to Brittany or Normandy, while Henry anchored off Plymouth for a week before learning of Buckingham's failure. John received a 20-pound annuity from Henry VII, but there are no mentions of him in contemporary records after 1487 (the year of the Battle of Stoke Field). Full Book Summary. During Richards youth, York initiated the opening stages of the Wars of the Roses. The Countess, who was still alive, was technically the owner of the substantial Beauchamp estates, her father having left no male heirs. York was the most prominent duke in England, of royal descent, and the most powerful nobleman of his day. Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England, Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke, Cultural depictions of Richard III of England, University of Leicester Archaeological Services, mitochondrial DNA, passed down the direct maternal line, Carson, Ashdown-Hill, Johnson, Johnson & Langley, "Richard III: Team rebuilds 'most famous spine', "Richard III, the 'hunchback king', really could have been a formidable warrior and his body double can prove it", Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past, "Robert Fabyan: 'The Concordaunce of Hystoryes' | Richard III Society American Branch", "The history of Crosby Place | British History Online", "Richard III dig: Grim clues to the death of a king", "Richard III died in battle after losing helmet, new research shows", "King Richard III killed by blows to skull", "The King in the Car Park: The Discovery and Identification of Richard III Professor Kevin Schrer", "Haute, William (d.1462), of Bishopsbourne, Kent", "The Statutes of King Richard III's Parliament", "These Supposed Crimes: Four Major Accusations (the Murders of Edward of Lancaster, Henry VI, Clarence and Queene Anne) Discussed and Illustrated", "Richard III: The people who want everyone to like the infamous king", "The Detective Novel That Convinced a Generation Richard III Wasn't Evil", "The many versions of Richard III: from Shakespeare to Game of Thrones", "New and Noteworthy: The Sunne in Splendour", "Richard III: Laurence Olivier's melodramatic baddie is seriously limp", "Benedict Cumberbatch proves a superb villain in The Hollow Crown's Richard III", "The remains of King Richard III reinterred in Leicester Cathedral, in pictures", "Hunt for the grave of a medieval king: first check the car park", "Historic search for King Richard III begins in Leicester", "Hunt for Richard III's remains under car park", "Greyfriars Project Update, Friday 31 August", "Search for Richard III Confirms that Remains Are the Long-Lost Church of the Grey Friars", "Greyfriars Project Update, 7 September", "Richard III dig: 'Strong evidence' bones belong to king", "Richard III dig: 'R' marks the spot where skeleton found in Leicester car park", "Burying Richard III: The hunch paid off", "DNA could cleanse a king besmirched; tests of skeletal remains may bring re-evaluation of the reviled Richard III", "Richard III: DNA confirms twisted bones belong to king", "Richard III dig: DNA confirms bones are king", "Edinburgh-based writer reveals how her intuition led archaeologists to remains of King Richard III", "Richard III dig: 'It does look like him', "Canadian family holds genetic key to Richard III puzzle", "Geneticist Dr Turi King and Genealogist Professor Kevin Schrer Give Key Evidence on the DNA Testing", "Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III", "Richard III DNA results announced Leicester University reveals identity of human remains found in car park", "Richard III: Leicester wins the battle of the bones", "Richard III: Facial reconstruction shows king's features", "Dundee experts reconstruct face of Richard III 528 years after his death", "Genomes of Richard III and his proven relative to be sequenced", "Richard III's DNA throws up infidelity surprise", "Richard III DNA study raises doubts about royal claims of centuries of British monarchs, researchers say", "Richard III: Leicester welcomes king's remains", "York Minster says Richard III should be buried in Leicester", "The Plantagenet Alliance: Who do they think they are? He had been Warden of the West March on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470,[85] and again from May 1471; he used Penrith as a base while 'taking effectual measures' against the Scots, and 'enjoyed the revenues of the estates' of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so. [105] On 22 June, a sermon was preached outside Old St. Paul's Cathedral by Ralph Shaa, declaring Edward IV's children bastards and Richard the rightful king. [154][269], The diggers found Greyfriars Church by 5 September 2012 and two days later announced that they had found Robert Herrick's garden, where the memorial to Richard III stood in the early 17th century. The battle of Bosworth, fought on 22 August 1485, was the last significant clash of the Wars of the Roses. The Welsh poet Guto'r Glyn credited Richard's death to Sir Rhys ap Thomas, a Welsh member of Henry's army who was said to have struck the fatal blow. Katherine was old enough to be wedded in 1484, when the age of consent was twelve, and John was knighted in September 1483 in York Minster, and so most historians agree that they were both fathered when Richard was a teenager. And that's where things stand at the beginning of Richard III! [132][133] The role of Northumberland is unclear; his position was with the reservebehind the king's lineand he could not easily have moved forward without a general royal advance, which did not take place. [311] The original 2010 raised tomb design had been proposed by Langley's "Looking For Richard Project" and fully funded by members of the Richard III Society. Richard III (2 October 1452 22 August 1485) was King of England from 26 June 1483 until his death in 1485. He was crowned on 6 July 1483. [100] Hastings was not attainted and Richard sealed an indenture that placed Hastings' widow, Katherine, under his protection. He urged the parties, though, to settle out of court in order to "avoid embarking on the Wars of the Roses, Part Two". [312] The remains of Richard III are in a lead-lined inner casket,[313] inside an outer English oak coffin crafted by Michael Ibsen, a direct descendant of Richard's sister Anne, and laid in a brick-lined vault below the floor, and below the plinth and tombstone. Consequently, Richards future at first was decidedly unpromising. [74] Any military prowess was therefore not to be revealed further until the last years of Edward's reign. The findings suggest that the higher concentration of eggs in the pelvic area probably arose from a roundworm infection the king suffered in his life, rather than from human waste dumped in the area at a later date, researchers said. A great future on the borders apparently beckoned, but he became king of England instead. [270][271] A human skeleton was found beneath the Church's choir. [272], Improbably, the excavators found the remains in the first dig at the car park.[273][274][275]. [311] On top is a funeral crown commissioned specifically for the reinterment, and made by George Easton. [165][286] Joy Ibsen died in 2008. As late as 1469 rumours were still linking Richard's name with Anne Neville's. Henry's forces defeated Richard's army near the Leicestershire town of Market Bosworth. His self-advancement was crowned by the Scottish war of 148183, when he was appointed the kings lieutenant in the north, recapturing Berwick and briefly occupying Edinburgh. Fit for a King (or Queen): the British Royalty Quiz. Young Prince Edward, the rightful heir to the throne, should not be confused with the . On 25 June, an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed a declaration to this effect, and proclaimed Richard as the rightful king. The speeches are proclaimed in front of their respective soldiers in order to coerce said soldiers into wanting to defeat their opponents. [171][172] John Ashdown-Hill has suggested that John was conceived during Richard's first solo expedition to the eastern counties in the summer of 1467 at the invitation of John Howard and that the boy was born in 1468 and named after his friend and supporter. [42], Richard was granted the Duchy of Gloucester on 1 November 1461,[43] and on 12 August the next year was awarded large estates in northern England, including the lordships of Richmond in Yorkshire, and Pembroke in Wales. "From November 1461 until 1465 all references to Richard place him in locations south of the river Trent. After his wife's death, Richard commenced negotiations with John II of Portugal to marry John's pious sister, Joanna, Princess of Portugal. In 1460 the Yorkist claimYorks descent through the senior female line from Edward III (reigned 132777)was recognized to be superior to the Lancastrian title through the junior male line of Henry VI. By the age of 17, he had an independent command. He earned the kings gratitude and proved a doughty combatant worth cultivating. Richard was slain, making him the last English king to die in battle. Omissions? This conclusion was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence,[291] soil analysis, and dental tests (there were some molars missing as a result of caries), as well as physical characteristics of the skeleton which are highly consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard's appearance. Here we look at the most well known Richard III monologues. [7], Richard was the dominant magnate in the north of England until Edward IV's death. The armies of Yorkist king Richard III were defeated by Henry Tudor (later Henry VII), which heralded the end of the Plantagenet dynasty and marked the birth of the Tudor age. Richard became king in 1377 aged 9. [84] Bringing regional governance directly under the control of central government, it has been described as the king's "most enduring monument", surviving unchanged until 1641. [118][note 5] Davies has suggested that it was "only the subsequent parliamentary attainder that placed Buckingham at the centre of events", to blame a disaffected magnate motivated by greed, rather than "the embarrassing truth" that those opposing Richard were actually "overwhelmingly Edwardian loyalists". He located lost archival material, including the Titulus Regius, but also claimed to have seen a letter written by Elizabeth of York, according to which Elizabeth sought to marry the king. She was a key figure, if more or less a pawn, in the Wars of the Roses. [7] Following the discoveries of Richard's remains in 2012, it was decided that they should be reburied at Leicester Cathedral,[300] despite feelings in some quarters that he should have been reburied in York Minster. Specifically, in the Vinter's Hall, Thameside. Nevertheless, resentment against Richard . He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. [175] The mysterious Richard Plantagenet, who was first mentioned in Francis Peck's Desiderata Curiosa (a two-volume miscellany published 17321735) was said to be a possible illegitimate child of Richard III and is sometimes referred to as "Richard the Master-Builder" or "Richard of Eastwell", but it has also been suggested he could have been Richard, Duke of York, one of the missing Princes in the Tower. [200], During his lifetime he was the subject of some attacks. [158], Richard and Anne had one son, Edward of Middleham, who was born between 1474 and 1476. [61], Once Edward had regained the support of his brother George, he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the crown through combat;[62] it is believed that Richard was his principal lieutenant[25] as some of the king's earliest support came from members of Richard's affinity, including Sir James Harrington[63] and Sir William Parr, who brought 600 men-at-arms to them at Doncaster. The Protector had the resort; the King in maner desolate. Joining her were her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset; her five daughters; and her youngest son, Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York. In Richard III, William Shakespeare gives us two powerful orations given by Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond (who later became King Henry VII) and King Richard III right before the two men go into battle against one another at the Battle of Bosworth Field. [170] They also suggest that John's mother may have been Alice Burgh. Additionally, there was an object that appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine; and there were perimortem injuries to the skull. [26] John Paston's letter of 17 February 1472 makes it clear that George was not happy about the marriage but grudgingly accepted it on the basis that "he may well have my Lady his sister-in-law, but they shall part no livelihood". For Dickon, thy master, is bought and sold. [72] Richard's was the largest private contingent of his army. She later received another allowance, apparently for being engaged as a nurse for his brother George's son, Edward of Warwick. The search was managed by Philippa Langley of the Society's Looking for Richard project with the archaeology run by University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS). They entered the city on 4 May, displaying the carriages of weapons Rivers had taken with his 2,000-man army. Updates? Then the king, Richard III has always been accused and held responsible. Author of. [107] He accepted on 26 June and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 July. [265][266] By comparing fixed points between maps in a historical sequence, the church was found, where Richard's body had been hastily buried without pomp in 1485, its foundations identifiable beneath a modern city centre car park. "[96] In Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he accounts that "little by little all folke withdrew from the Tower, and drew unto Crosbies in Bishops gates Street, where the Protector kept his houshold. The anonymous play The True Tragedy of Richard III (c.1590), performed in the same decade as Shakespeare's work, was probably an influence on Shakespeare. Character Richard III was denigrated by John Rous (a 15th-century priest and antiquary), More, and Shakespeare. Robert Fabyan, in his 'The new chronicles of England and of France', writes that "the Duke caused the King (Edward V) to be removed unto the Tower and his broder with hym, and the Duke lodged himselfe in Crosbyes Place in Bisshoppesgate Strete. King Richard III's skeleton was found in a car park two years ago. [321], As Duke of Gloucester, Richard used the Royal Arms of France quartered with the Royal Arms of England, differenced by a label argent of three points ermine, on each point a canton gules, supported by a blue boar. 4. The authoritative Buck text was published only in 1979, though a corrupted version was published by Buck's great-nephew in 1646. The following year, he was appointed Chief Steward and Chamberlain of Wales. The two young sons of King Edward IV and his wife, Elizabeth, their names are actually Prince Edward and the young duke of York, but they are often referred to collectively. Before the king could be crowned, the marriage of his parents was declared bigamous and therefore invalid. It was probably late in 1468, when he was 16 years old, that Richard was declared of age, took possession of estates conferred by his brother, and commenced public life, attending court and judicial commissions. For the grandson of George V, see Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Richard's marriage to Anne was never declared null, and it was public to everyone including secular and canon lawyers for 13 years. Richard rode a white courser (an especially swift and strong horse). [78] There, and especially in the city of York, he was highly regarded;[79] although it has been questioned whether this view was reciprocated by Richard. [220] Francis Bacon also states that he was "a good lawmaker for the ease and solace of the common people". Hanham has raised "the charge of hypocrisy", Rosemary Horrox notes that "Buckingham was an exception amongst the rebels as, far from being a previous favourite, he 'had been refused any political role by Edward IV'.". It is generally accepted that postmortem, Richard's naked body was tied to the back of a horse, with his arms slung over one side and his legs and buttocks over the other. [277][278][279], British historian John Ashdown-Hill had used genealogical research in 2004 to trace matrilineal descendants of Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Richard's elder sister. Ben Jonson is also known to have written a play Richard Crookback in 1602, but it was never published and nothing is known about its portrayal of the king. [165][166] There is no evidence of infidelity on Richard's part after his marriage to Anne Neville in 1472 when he was around 20. [149] Henry Tudor succeeded Richard as King Henry VII. "[208], Richard's death encouraged the furtherance of this later negative image by his Tudor successors due to the fact that it helped to legitimise Henry VII's seizure of the throne. BBC News The discovery of the medieval English king Richard III, who fought battle in vain in 1485, has become almost as memorable as the life of the man himself, with details such as his. Summer 2017: King Richard III of England ruled from June 26, 1483 until his death at the Battle of Bosworth Field on August 22, 1485. [113] He also founded the College of Arms. His reign was characterized by aristocratic opposition and political ineptitude. But Richard III makes us reconsider our definition of what a hero is because, as evil as he is, Richard is certainly the play's protagonist. [21][22], Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville on 12 July 1472. Further, the bottom of the skull presented a gaping hole, where a halberd had cut away and entered it. However, Michael Ibsen, who gave the DNA sample that identified the king, gave his support to Leicester's claim to re-inter the body in their cathedral. At the queen's request, Earl Rivers was escorting the young king to London with an armed escort of 2,000 men, while Richard and Buckingham's joint escort was 600 men. [259][309], Richard's cathedral tomb was designed by the architects van Heyningen and Haward. Edward and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, called the "Princes in the Tower", were not seen in public after August, and accusations circulated that they had been murdered on King Richard's orders, after the Tudor dynasty established their rule a few years later. Evil.

Can You Live In A Tiny House In Massachusetts, Rainier Golf And Country Club Staff, Leviathan 40k Tyranid, Apartments Under $1,000 Salisbury Nc, Chelsea Employment Agency, Cheap Vacations In The Northeast, Creighton Transfer Basketball,